Always Remember / Never Forget

Veterans Day, 2008
A Proclamation by the President of the United States of America


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On Veterans Day, we pay tribute to the service and sacrifice of the men and women who in defense of our freedom have bravely worn the uniform of the United States.

From the fields and forests of war-torn Europe to the jungles of Southeast Asia, from the deserts of Iraq to the mountains of Afghanistan, brave patriots have protected our Nation's ideals, rescued millions from tyranny, and helped spread freedom around the globe. America's veterans answered the call when asked to protect our Nation from some of the most brutal and ruthless tyrants, terrorists, and militaries the world has ever known. They stood tall in the face of grave danger and enabled our Nation to become the greatest force for freedom in human history. Members of the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard have answered a high calling to serve and have helped secure America at every turn.

Our country is forever indebted to our veterans for their quiet courage and exemplary service. We also remember and honor those who laid down their lives in freedom's defense. These brave men and women made the ultimate sacrifice for our benefit. On Veterans Day, we remember these heroes for their valor, their loyalty, and their dedication. Their selfless sacrifices continue to inspire us today as we work to advance peace and extend freedom around the world.

With respect for and in recognition of the contributions our service members have made to the cause of peace and freedom around the world, the Congress has provided (5 U.S.C. 6103(a)) that November 11 of each year shall be set aside as a legal public holiday to honor America's veterans.

NOW, THEREFORE, I, GEORGE W. BUSH, President of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim November 11, 2008, as Veterans Day and urge all Americans to observe November 9 through November 15, 2008, as National Veterans Awareness Week. I encourage all Americans to recognize the bravery and sacrifice of our veterans through ceremonies and prayers. I call upon Federal, State, and local officials to display the flag of the United States and to support and participate in patriotic activities in their communities. I invite civic and fraternal organizations, places of worship, schools, businesses, unions, and the media to support this national observance with commemorative expressions and programs.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this thirty-first day of October, in the year of our Lord two thousand eight, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and thirty-third.

GEORGE W. BUSH

Who Owns the Moon ? / The Case For Lunar Property Rights

The moon has been in plain view for all of human history, but it's only within the past few decades that it's been possible to travel there. And for just about as long as the moon has been within reach, people have been arguing about lunar property rights: Can astronauts claim the moon for king and country, as in the Age of Discovery? Are corporations allowed to expropriate its natural resources, and individuals to own its real estate?

The first article on the subject, "High Altitude Flight and National Sovereignty," was written by Princeton legal scholar John Cobb Cooper in 1951. Various theoretical discussions followed, with some scholars arguing that the moon had to be treated differently than earthbound properties and others claiming that property laws in space shouldn't differ from those on Earth.

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The Lucifer Policy / Destroy Mankind Through Law

Regardless if you truly believe there is a shadow organization hell-bent on taking over the entire planet and forcing people into a totalitarian slave state, one thing is for certain: policy is the means to the destructive end. I don’t care who you are—when coming face to face with a government or organizational policy, you feel absolutely helpless, since those who are enforcing it are put into those enforcement positions and paid because they are somehow able to mindlessly meet the requirements and regurgitating the words of the policy to others. This is what we are taught in schools as the way to succeed—shutup and do as your told. Enforce policy like no other! Look at you meteoric rise! No no no, don’t look at who is hurt from your actions or what is the end result—just keep your eyes on that which is important! Policy.

Policy is the law. Policy is the program. And as a result, policy is the devil incarnate, structure itself, and what better structure is there than the one which keeps the policy makers at the top? I don’t care if you believe in the devil or not but policy removes human consciousness from all equations in life and turns the populace who are carrying out its creeds into soulless entities, and if that is not demonic, then I don’t know what is. Through the creation of policy, people are able to say such things as, “Well, I apologize you have lost your home and all of your belongings in a flood, but we have a policy that states you must include all building materials in your submissions form, and you did not include anything about balsa wood in your bathroom.”

Or, “We have a policy to charge 3 times the rental rate of that video if it is overdue by a week, and even though you weren’t aware that your son did not deliver it to us after being involved in a car accident, you still owe us 400 dollars, despite the fact the video is only worth ten dollars and you won’t be able to buy food for the next 30 days.” What should you do? How do you fight it? You can’t, because it is a spiritless policy.

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Ancient Olympics / ‘Like Vince Lombardi On The PGA Circuit’

ScienceDaily (July 1, 2008) — The modern Olympic ideals differ dramatically from the way the games were actually played in ancient Greece, says a University of Maryland classicist who has heavily researched the Olympic past. The ancient games featured professionals with a “winning is everything” philosophy.



“Ancient Olympiads were more like the modern PGA golf circuit than the amateur ideal advanced for most of the 20th century,” says Hugh Ming Lee, a professor of classics at the University of Maryland. “The Greeks and Romans awarded honors to the most accomplished athletes and paid them for their efforts. These professionals traveled a competitive circuit. The Vince Lombardi notion of winning is much closer to the original Olympic spirit.”

Ancient athletes resorted to various “potions” to gain a competitive edge. “The dung of a wild boar was honored for the powers it conferred on charioteers,” Lee points out. “Even the emperor Nero tried it''.

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Cadaver Tissue Fails Nearly 25% Of The Time In Young ACL Reconstructions

ScienceDaily (July 12, 2008) — With an estimated 80,000 Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) tears happening each year in the United States*, including recently to famed golfer, Tiger Woods, choosing the best replacement ligament for surgery is one key to success. A study released July 10 at the 2008 American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine's Annual Meeting, found that with a failure rate of almost 24 percent, the use of cadaver replacement ligaments may not be the best choice for young, athletic patients.




"Choosing a replacement ligament, whether it comes from a cadaver or the patient's own tissue is a decision that must be made by the surgeon and patient," said co-author Kurre Luber, MD, orthopedic surgery fellow at Mississippi Sports Medicine and Orthopaedic Center. "This study found a very high failure rate in patients 40 years and younger with high activity levels in ACL-dependent sports like tennis, basketball, soccer and downhill skiing. Certainly, it would be naïve to think that only the graft selection led to these failures, we also need to look at surgical technique (single versus double bundle). Better outcome measures also need to be developed. However, this study definitely raises questions about the validity of using cadaver tissue in this patient subgroup."

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Vinyl Music & The Turntable Makes Comeback

Music Lovers Rediscover The Timbre Of The Turntable
July 11, 2008, 8:29 AM EST


Travis Dryden spent his childhood listening to his parent's records. And then he left them behind with the other detritus of his pre-college years to be sold for pennies at a yard sale.

Lured by the portability of cassette tapes, the iridescent gleam of compact discs, then the miniaturized wonder of MP3 players — who needed the fragile, antiquated technology of an LP?

As it turns out, Dryden did.

Now, like thousands of other reborn vinyl addicts, he scours record stores around the country, trying to get those lost records back.

"I abandoned a lot of my collection, unfortunately," Dryden said. "I started at record stores, thrift stores, garage sales and estate sales. When I travel for business I seek out record stores and thrift stores at the cities I visit."

Right now, Dryden said, his collection is small with only about 500 albums. But it might as well be 50,000 — as co-founder of the Vinyl Preservation Society of Idaho, a rapidly growing group in Boise, Dryden gets the opportunity to listen to selections from thousands of records at the organization's monthly meetings.

The group started last year with a handful of people. They brought CDs, MP3s and records, meeting in each their homes to talk and listen to music. Again and again, Dryden said, the group found themselves choosing the warm hum of the turntable over the cold precision of digital formats.

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Early Warning System For Earthquakes: Seismic 'Stress Meter' Warned Of Earthquake 10 Hours In Advance

ScienceDaily (July 10, 2008) — Using remarkably sensitive new instruments, seismologists have detected minute geological changes that preceded small earthquakes along California's famed San Andreas Fault by as much as 10 hours. If follow-up tests show that the preseismic signal is pervasive, researchers say the method could form the basis of a robust early warning system for impending quakes.

"We're working with colleagues in China and Japan on follow-up studies to determine whether this physical response can be measured in other seismically active regions," said Rice University seismologist Fenglin Niu, the study's lead author. "Provided the effect is pervasive, we still need to learn more about the timing of the signals if we are to reliably use them to warn of impending quakes."

Today's state-of-the-art earthquake warning systems give only a few seconds' warning before a quake strikes. These systems detect P-waves, the fastest moving seismic waves released during a quake. Like a flash of lightning that arrives before a clap of thunder, the fast-moving P-waves precede slower moving but more destructive waves.

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Artifacts Of George Washington Discovered At Childhood Home

Foundations Of George Washington's Childhood House Have Been Found At Ferry Farm In Virginia, The Setting Of The Legendary Cherry Tree Story.

Wig curlers, a carnelian bead and a half million other artifacts were also part of the discovery, which will help scholars fill in large gaps in the story of the first U.S. president's early life.

"When you look at the normal biographies of Washington, they start when he's 23," said David Muraca, who oversaw the excavation as director of archaeology at the George Washington Foundation, which owns Ferry Farm.

"This piece of the story is very difficult for historians to get their hands around," he said. "This dig will let us start our stories much earlier."

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Confessed Serial Killer Sobhraj To Marry

KATMANDU, Nepal - Confessed French serial killer Charles Sobhraj, who was convicted and sentenced to life in prison in Nepal, is engaged and plans to marry a woman 44 years younger than he is.

Both Sobhraj, 64, and his 20-year-old Nepalese fiancée, Nihita Biswas, said they are planning to get married if he is freed by Nepal's Supreme Court.

Sobhraj was convicted by a Katmandu district court in 2004 on charges of killing a Canadian tourist in Katmandu in 1975. He was arrested at a luxury Katmandu casino when he returned to Nepal in 2003.


He has filed an appeal to the Supreme Court and a decision is expected in the next few days.

"We are planning a future after his release. We know he is going to be released soon. We are going to be married under French law in France," Biswas told reporters in Katmandu on Saturday.

She said their large age gap did not matter.

"I am mature enough to decide for myself," she said. "Age does not make a difference."

The two met 2 1/2 months ago when she went to apply for a job as interpreter for his French lawyer, she said.

Biswas said she was certain the Supreme Court would free Sobhraj because of a lack of evidence against him.

Sobhraj's lawyers and jail officials said they only found out about the engagement after reading about it in local newspapers.

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New Research Tool Can Detect Autism At 9 Months Of Age

The ability to detect autism in children as young as nine months of age is on the horizon, according to researchers at McMaster University.

The Early Autism Study, led by Mel Rutherford, associate professor of psychology in the Faculty of Science, has been using eye tracker technology that measures eye direction while the babies look at faces, eyes, and bouncing balls on a computer screen.

"What's important about this study is that now we can distinguish between a group of siblings with autism from a group with no autism -- at nine months and 12 months," says Rutherford. "I can do this in 10 minutes, and it is objective, meaning that the only measure is eye direction; it's not influenced by a clinician's report or by intuition. Nobody's been able to distinguish between these groups at so early an age."

Currently, the earliest diagnostic test for autism is reliable around the age of two, and most children in Ontario are diagnosed around age three or four. The earlier the diagnosis the better the overall prognosis, says Rutherford.

"There is an urgent need for a quick, reliable and objective screening tool to aid in diagnosing autism much earlier than is presently possible," she says. "Developing a tool for the early detection of autism would have profound effects on people with autism, their parents, family members, and future generations of those at risk of developing autism."

Rutherford presented her peer-reviewed research at the 7th Annual International Meeting for Autism Research in London.

More information on the Early Autism Study can found at http://www.earlyautismstudy.com.


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Is Indy Chasing A Fake ? Two Well-known Crystal Skulls Did Not, After All, Come From Ancient Mexico

ScienceDaily (May 25, 2008) — As Indiana Jones races against time to find an ancient crystal skull in his new movie adventure, he should perhaps take a moment to check its authenticity.

New research suggests that two well-known crystal skulls, in the British Museum and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, did not, after all, come from ancient Mexico. Academics now believe the British skull was made in 19th century Europe and the American one even more recently.

The British Museum bought its skull, a life-size carving from a single block of rock crystal from Tiffany and Company, New York in 1897. Its origins were unknown but there were suggestions it was of ancient Mexican origin. Human skulls worn as ornaments and displayed on racks were known to have featured in Aztec art. The skull attracted a lot of public attention and speculation it was once thought to have healing powers. Crystal skulls have since featured in many books, articles and films, most recently in the new Steven Spielberg movie Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull.

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People With Joint Pain Can Really Forecast Thunderstorms

ScienceDaily (Jun. 3, 2008) — The summer brings many thunderstorms to the east coast of the United States, and one of the nation’s leading joint specialists, Javad Parvizi, M.D., Ph.D., of the Rothman Institute at Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, says you should believe your grandmother, friend or co-worker when they tell you it’s going to rain—even if it’s simply because their aching knees, hips, hands or shoulders “say so.”

Dr. Parvizi, who is also director of clinical research at the Rothman Institute at Jefferson, and associate professor of Orthopaedic Surgery at Jefferson Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia, explains that even though individuals can experience pain fluctuations with the slightest change in barometric pressure, most patients report significant increases in pain before and during severe changes in weather, like summer downpours and thunderstorms.

“The phenomenon of people being able to forecast precipitation, especially rain, due to the level of their joint pain is real,” says Dr. Parvizi. “It is not in the patient’s head. There is science to back it up.”

Weather-related joint pain is typically seen in patients with osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and other arthritic conditions. It can affect any load-bearing joint, but is most common in hips, knees, elbows, shoulders and hands. The joints contain sensory nerves called baro-receptors which respond to changes in atmospheric pressure. These receptors especially react when there is low barometric pressure, meaning the atmosphere has gone from dry to moist, like when it is going to rain.

“When pressure in the environment changes, we know that the amount of fluid in the joint or the pressure inside the joint fluctuates with it,” says Dr. Parvizi. “Individuals with arthritic joints feel these changes much more because they have less cartilage to provide cushioning.”

Dr. Parvizi says that sometimes the pain is due to inflammatory mediators around the joint, like with rheumatoid arthritis conditions and can often be helped by keeping the joints warm or icing them (depending on preference), massage therapy, and applying pain killing creams and ointments. Other treatments may include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), site-specific steroid injections, and long-term use of certain supplements like Omega-3 (which is used to reduce inflammation) and glucosamine and chondroitin, which have been shown, in combination, to significantly reduce arthritis pain and maintain healthy cartilage.

For patients who have suffered a long time and exhibit signs of end stage arthritis (no cartilage left to cushion the joint), Dr. Parvizi suggests that joint replacement should be considered.

“Our goal is to get that painful little weatherman out of the patient’s joints while treating the root cause of their condition.”

The Rothman Institute at Thomas Jefferson University Hospital in Philadelphia offers orthopaedic and sports medicine expertise in the medical care of the spine, hip, knee, shoulder, elbow, foot, ankle, wrist and hand. Ranked second in the U.S. for orthopaedic funding by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery at Jefferson comprises over 50 board certified physicians who develop, teach and practice groundbreaking therapies and technologies that shape patient care practices around the country.


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Adapted from materials provided by Thomas Jefferson University Hospital.

Resurrection Of A Biblical Tree

Date Palm Pit Found At Masada Germinates At 2,000 Years Old.

The palm some ancients called the “Tree of Life” has been revived from a 2,000-year sleep, genes and all. In what is now the germination of the oldest known seed, a date pit plucked from ancient rubble at Masada has sprouted, scientists report. The sapling’s genetic fingerprint suggests it is none other than the Judean date palm, a variety referred to in the Bible and long thought extinct.

Like the iceman found in the Alps, this Judean date palm opens a window into the past, comments Paul Gepts, a plant geneticist at the University of California, Davis. “A small window, but a window nonetheless.”

Excavations in the ’60s uncovered five date pits in the Dead Sea region of Israel at Masada — a mesa-top Herodian fortress and, in the first century A.D., the last stronghold of Jews who, as the story goes, chose to fall upon their own swords rather than be slaughtered by the Roman forces surrounding them. For decades the seeds sat on a shelf in the office of Mordechai Kislev, an archaeobotanist at Bar-Ilan University in Israel.

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Tim Russert / 'Meet The Press' Pays Tribute To It's Longtime Host

By FRAZIER MOORE , Associated Press
Last update: June 15, 2008 - 1:26 PM

NEW YORK - Tim Russert's chair was empty on "Meet the Press" on Sunday, two days after his unexpected death.
But Russert was very much present on the full-hour tribute to this giant of political journalism who hosted NBC's public-affairs program for more than 16 years.

"His voice has been stilled," began Tom Brokaw, who led the conversation, "and our issue this sad Sunday morning is remembering and honoring our colleague and our friend ...."
Brokaw and a half-dozen others were seated in front of the "Meet the Press" set and its angular table, left vacant, where Russert had presided as recently as last week.
Brokaw noted that Russert had a large wooden sign in his office that read: "Thou Shalt Not Whine," which Brokaw then supplemented with "Thou shalt not weep or cry this morning. This is a celebration."

But a bit later he choked up, recalling Russert's words of awe at how far a working-class kid from Buffalo like himself could rise: "What a country!" he would marvel.
Among those gathered were presidential historian Doris Kearns Goodwin and political pundit Mary Matalin, with Maria Shriver — the former NBC News correspondent and currently California's first lady — on a remote hookup.

All agreed that Russert was tough but fair in his interviewing, and that he, as a former political operative himself, loved politics and politicians.
What he didn't like, said consultant-pundit James Carville, was an elected official or anybody else who wasn't prepared to face him.
"The biggest insult to him was someone who came on and ... didn't take the show seriously," Carville said.

It was a mistake they quickly regretted, because Russert took his stewardship of "Meet the Press" as a sacred trust.
"He would spend all week preparing," said executive producer Betsy Fischer.
PBS' Gwen Ifill, a former NBC correspondent, called the program "The Church of Tim."
"I would actually get a pass from my own pastor to not be in church on Sunday if I was gonna be on `Meet the Press,'" she said with a smile.

MSNBC commentator Mike Barnicle added that Russert's son, Luke, had told him the day before that the program was "Tim's second son."
However fitting Sunday's tribute, it was a cruel irony that Russert had become the big story, particularly in the midst of a like-no-other presidential race that he was covering with his customary gusto.

Guests he had planned to grill Sunday were senior officials from both campaigns.
All that changed with Russert's death from a heart attack Friday. He was stricken while preparing for the broadcast at his network's Washington bureau.
NBC aired a prime-time tribute Friday night, then devoted Saturday's "Today" show to his life and career. His passing dominated rival cable-news networks and news-talk shows.

Russert was the face of political news for NBC as well as cable sibling MSNBC, serving as chief political analyst, a frequent correspondent and an election-night fixture, besides his off-camera duties as NBC News' Washington bureau chief.
He had become almost synonymous with the top-rated "Meet the Press," the TV institution he reinvented while becoming an institution himself. He had been its host since 1991 when the show, the longest-running on television, already was in its 45th year.

Several tape montages on Sunday's tribute displayed Russert in action, pressing subjects from Ross Perot to Louis Farrakhan. Politicos including John Kerry and Hillary Rodham Clinton were seen telling Russert they had no interest in running for the White House.
The abrupt void Russert leaves is unprecedented in network TV news. Even the tragic death of ABC News anchor Peter Jennings in 2005 followed his much-publicized battle with lung cancer and his four-month absence from the airwaves.

There was no immediate word on who would host "Meet the Press" next week, or in the weeks after that.
Drawing the program to a close, Brokaw observed "this would not have been just another Sunday for Tim: This is Father's Day." Any regular viewer of "Meet the Press" knew Russert was a devoted son (of "Big Russ," about whom he wrote in a best-selling memoir) and father (to Luke).

But the final moments — eerily yet aptly — were of Russert signing off from his host's chair, proud and cheery, with Father's Day greetings to all. For an instant, viewers might have wondered: Who will Russert be grilling next week?

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1780 British Warship Found In Lake Ontario

SYRACUSE, N.Y. — A 22-gun British warship that sank during the American Revolution and has long been regarded as one of the "Holy Grail" shipwrecks in the Great Lakes has been discovered at the bottom of Lake Ontario, astonishingly well-preserved in the cold, deep water, explorers announced Friday.

Shipwreck enthusiasts Jim Kennard and Dan Scoville used side-scanning sonar and an unmanned submersible to locate the HMS Ontario, which was lost with barely a trace and as many as 130 people aboard during a gale in 1780.
The 80-foot sloop of war is the oldest shipwreck and the only fully intact British warship ever found in the Great Lakes, Scoville and Kennard said.

"To have a Revolutionary War vessel that's practically intact is unbelievable. It's an archaeological miracle," said Canadian author Arthur Britton Smith, who chronicled the history of the HMS Ontario in a 1997 book, "The Legend of the Lake."
The finders of the wreck said they regard it as a war grave and have no plans to raise it or remove any of its artifacts. They said the ship is still considered the property of the British Admiralty.

the vessel sits in an area where the water is up to 500 feet deep and cannot be reached by anyone but the most experienced divers, Kennard and Scoville declined to give its exact location, saying only that it was found off the southern shore.

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The Leaning Tower Of Pisa

The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: Torre pendente di Pisa) or simply The Tower of Pisa (La Torre di Pisa) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of the Italian city of Pisa. It is situated behind the Cathedral and it is the third structure by time in Pisa's Piazza del Duomo (Cathedral Square).

Although intended to stand vertically, the tower began leaning to the southeast soon after the onset of construction in 1173 due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift direction.

The height of the tower is 55.86 m (183.27 ft) from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 m (186.02 ft) on the highest side. The width of the walls at the base is 4.09 m (13.42 ft) and at the top 2.48 m (8.14 ft). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tonnes. The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-facing staircase. The tower leans at an angle of 3.97 degrees[1]. This means that the top of the tower is 3.9 meters from where it would stand if the tower were perfectly vertical.[2]

Construction

The Tower of Pisa was a work of art, performed in three stages over a period of about 177 years. Construction of the first floor of the white marble campanile began on August 9, 1173, a period of military success and prosperity. This first floor is surrounded by pillars with classical capitals, leaning against blind arches.
The tower began to sink after construction progressed to the third floor in 1178. This was due to a mere three-meter foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil. This means the design was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, because the Pisans were almost continually engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca and Florence.

This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle. Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled. In 1198, clocks were temporarily installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.
In 1272, construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of the Camposanto. In an effort to compensate for the tilt, the engineers built higher floors with one side taller than the other. This made the tower begin to lean in the other direction. Because of this, the tower is actually curved.[3] Construction was halted again in 1284, when the Pisans were defeated by the Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.

The seventh floor was completed in 1319. The bell-chamber was not finally added until 1372. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano, who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower. There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical scale. The largest one was installed in 1655.
After a phase (1990-2001) of structural strengthening, the tower is currently undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visual damage, mostly corrosion and blackening. These are particularly strong due to the tower's age and to its particular conditions with respect to wind and rain.[4]

The Architect

There has been controversy about the real identity of the architect of the Leaning Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano [5], a well-known 12th-century resident artist of Pisa, famous for his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Bonanno Pisano left Pisa in 1185 for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. His sarcophagus was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820. However recent studies[6] seem to indicate Diotisalvi as the original architect due to the time of construction and affinity with other Diotisalvi works, notably the bell tower of San Nicola (Pisa) and the Baptistery in Pisa. However, he usually signed his works and there is no signature by him in the bell tower which leads to further speculation.

History

Galileo Galilei is said to have dropped two cannon balls of different masses from the tower to demonstrate that their descending speed was independent of their mass. This is considered an apocryphal tale, and the only source for it comes from Galileo's secretary.[7]
In 1934 Benito Mussolini ordered that the tower be returned to a vertical position, so concrete was poured into its foundation. However, the result was that the tower actually sank further into the soil.[8]

During World War II, the Allies discovered that the Nazis were using it as an observation post. A U.S. Army sergeant was briefly entrusted with the fate of the tower. His decision not to call in an artillery strike saved the edifice.[8]
On February 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower from toppling. It was, however, considered important to retain the current tilt, due to the vital role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa. [9] A multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians and historians was assigned and met on the Azores islands to discuss stabilization methods.

It was found that the tilt was increasing due to the stonework expanding and contracting each day due to the heat of sunlight[10]. This was working in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many methods were proposed to stabilize the tower, including the addition of 800 metric tons of lead counterweights to the raised end of the base.[11]

On 7 January 1990, after over two decades of work on the subject, the tower was closed to the public. While the tower was closed, the bells were removed to relieve some weight, and cables were cinched around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety.

The final solution to prevent the collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten the tower to a safer angle, by removing 38 m3 of soil from underneath the raised end. The tower was straightened by 18 inches (45 centimetres), returning to the exact position that it occupied in 1838. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001, and has been declared stable for at least another 300 years.[11]

In 1987, the tower was declared as part of the Piazza dei Miracoli UNESCO World Heritage Site along with neighbouring cathedral, baptistery and cemetery.
In May 2008, after the removal of another 70 tonnes of earth, engineers announced that the Tower had been stabilized such that it had stopped moving for the first time in its history. They stated it would be stable for at least 200 years.[12]

Certain Information And Suppositions

The following data are helpful in establishing the credibility of the history line of the Leaning Tower of Pisa :

On 5 January 1172, Donna Berta di Bernardo, a widow and resident of the house of dell'Opera di Santa Maria, bequeathed sessanta soldi or "sixty coins" to the Opera Campanilis petrarum Sancte Marie. This money was to be used toward the purchase of a few stones which still form the base of the bell tower today.[13]

On 9 August 1173, the foundations of the Tower were laid.[14]
Nearly four centuries later Giorgio Vasari wrote : "Guglielmo, according to what is being said, in [this] year 1174 with Bonanno as sculptor, laid the foundations of the belltower of the cathedral in Pisa."

Another possible builder is Gerardo di Gerardo. His name appears as a witness to the above legacy of Berta di Bernardo as "Master Gerardo", and as a worker whose name was Gerardo.
A more probable builder is Diotisalvi, because of the construction period and the structure's affinities with other buildings in Pisa. But he usually signed his works, and there is no signature by him in the belltower.

Giovanni di Simone was heavily involved in the work of completing the tower, under the direction of Giovanni Pisano, who at the time was master builder of the Opera di Santa Maria Maggiore. He could be the same Giovanni Pisano who completed the belfry tower.
Giorgio Vasari indicates that Tommaso di Andrea Pisano was the designer of the belfry between 1360 and 1370.

On 27 December 1233 the worker Benenato, son of Gerardo Bottici, oversaw the continuation of the construction of the belltower.[15]

On 23 February 1260 Guido Speziale, son of Giovanni, a worker on the cathedral Santa Maria Maggiore, was elected to oversee the building of the Tower.[16]

On 12 April 1264 the master builder Giovanni di Simone and 23 workers went to the mountains close to Pisa to cut marble. The cut stones were given to Rainaldo Speziale, worker of St. Francesco.[17]

Technical Information

Elevation of Piazza dei Miracoli: about 2 metres (6 feet, DMS)

: 55.863 metres (183 ft 3 in), 8 stories

Outer diameter of base: 15.484 m

Inner diameter of base: 7.368 m

Angle of slant: 3.97 degrees[18] or 3.9 m from the vertical[19]

Weight: 14,700 tonnes

Thickness of walls at the base: 8 ft (2.4 m)

Total number of bells: 7, tuned to musical scale, clockwise

1st bell: L'assunta, cast in 1654 by Giovanni Pietro Orlandi, weight 3,620 kg (7,981 lb)

2nd bell: Il Crocifisso, cast in 1572 by Vincenzo Possenti, weight 2,462 kg (5,428 lb)

3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in 1719-1721 by Giovanni Andrea Moreni, weight 1,448 kg (3,192 lb)

4th bell: La Terza (1st small one), cast in 1473, weight 300 kg (661 lb)

5th bell: La Pasquereccia or La Giustizia, cast in 1262 by Lotteringo, weight 1,014 kg (2,235 lb)

6th bell: Il Vespruccio (2nd small one), cast in the 14th century and again in 1501 by Nicola di Jacopo, weight 1,000 kg (2,205 lb)

7th bell: Dal Pozzo, cast in 1606 and again in 2004, weight 652 kg (1,437 lb) [20]
Steps to bell tower: 296[21]

A special note on the 5th bell: The name Pasquareccia comes from Easter, because it used to ring on Easter day. However, this bell is older than the bell-chamber itself, and comes from the tower Vergata in Palazzo Pretorio in Pisa, where it was called La Giustizia (The Justice). The bell was tolled to announce capital executions of criminals and traitors, including Count Ugolino in 1289 [22] A new bell was transferred on the belltower to replace the broken Pasquareccia bell at the end of the 18th century.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa

The Fun & Foolishness Of Metal Lunch Boxes !

With some exceptions, you're not going to find many generation X'ers collecting metal lunch boxes. This new entry to the collectible market burst on the scene in the mid l980's. Its popularity is partially due to the fact that all production of metal lunch boxes stopped abruptly in 1986, and partly to the fact that individuals who carried their lunches to school in these containers the 1950's, 60's and 70's were only then old enough to become nostalgic about them.
Metal lunch boxes have a peculiar history.

The lunch box that launched a three-decade industry featured a picture of TV cowboy Hopalong Cassidy, and allegedly appeared in late l949. Produced by Aladdin, one of the giants of lunch box manufacture, its popularity was so great with school children in 1950 that it inspired Aladdin to move into other TV hero boxes, and spawned a host of competitors.

It was not, however, the very "first" lunchbox. That kudo goes to Geuder, Paeschke and Frey, who, between 1935 and 1937, created the Mickey Mouse oval kit lunch box. This lunch box is extremely rare today, and yet is not as valuable as some of the boxes that came after it.

So why did metal lunch boxes take the U.S. by storm in l950? The moment is an interesting one in history of American popular culture. During World War II, the production of many consumer items was diverted to the war effort. Still recovering from the Depression, and consumed with the impact of World War II on their lives, Americans scrimped and saved, put in victory gardens, and used the radio as their major source of entertainment and news. It was an extremely no-frills period.

Still, children went to school and took their lunches with them. There certainly were lunch boxes prior to l949. Retired University of Illinois Professor J.W. Courtier, himself an expert on Aladdin collectibles, reports that he took his lunch to school in the forties in a workman's lunch box. "My dad was a school teacher and that's what he used to transport his lunch to school. So I wanted one like his."

Several factors together initiated the lunch box movement: the robust production of babies by returning veterans and their wives, the new "family centered attitude" promoted by government and industry alike, and the infant television industry. Growing numbers of television viewers enjoyed TV characters from Hopalong Cassidy to Roy Rogers and Davie Crockett, and these sparked a wave of consumer items directed at children.

From Davie Crockett hats to Roy Rogers's guns and clothing, American children wanted to identify with their TV heroes and American manufacturers were more than happy to oblige them. To the sages on Madison Avenue, it became apparent that children greatly identified with the icons of certain television shows and this identification could be turned to the purchase of objects associated with those shows, which in turn reinforced the popularity of the shows, themselves.

No one predicted that lunch boxes would be the ideal vehicle for this kind of advertising. Aladdin began with one lunch box, licensing the right to portray Hopalong Cassidy and hiring artist Robert O. Burton to create the image. Demand was overwhelming and Aladdin turned to other producers of TV fare, Disney productions in particular, to license images for their lunch boxes.

Other companies quickly got into the market. It is interesting that although millions of lunch boxes were sold annually, not that many models appeared on the market. According to Allan Woodall and Sean Brickell, authors of the Illustrated Encyclopedia of Metal Lunch Boxes, manufacturers created only 450 different models in the thirty-six years of the industry's heyday.

Twelve companies dominated the market. These include: Aladdin, American Can, Cheinco, Geuder, Paesche, and Frey, General Steel Ware, Heekin Can, King Seeley Thermos (America Thermos), Ohio Art, Okay Industries, Omni Graphics, and Owens Illinois Can Company.
Every year, as new television shows were introduced, new lunch boxes came on the market.

Children even dented or destroyed last the previous year's lunch box in order to get a new one for the start of a new school year. And television was by no means the only source of inspiration. Food products such as Fritos, movie stars, rock bands, comic book characters, sports teams and individual players, other toys such as dolls and action heroes, computer games, astronauts, even popular books (e.g. Jonathan Livingston Seagull) had their characters depicted on lunch boxes and thermoses. Some boxes had no recognizable characters and were simply decorative. One of the definitive l60' lunch boxes, for example, is Aladdin's psychedelic red and yellow swirled domed lunch box.

It all came to a sudden end. Metal lunch boxes and their accompanying thermoses are hard little suckers and over the years children apparently used them for more than storing their lunches. When fights broke out in school lunchrooms across the country, lunch boxes became the weapon of choice. Mothers whose kids returned home with large lumps and welts began to complain, and a group of mothers in Florida in the 1970s went so far as to complain to the state legislature.

Florida was the first state to ban metal lunch boxes and many other states followed suit. By l986, no manufacturer was using metal anymore. Plastic versions could support the same TV and product logos, were probably better protectors of food, and could not be considered dangerous under normal conditions.

But wait, has it all ended really? Lunch Box Bonanza News, a website devoted to lunch boxes and their aficionados or "boxers" as they are affectionately known, reports that Thermos is again releasing metal lunch boxes. In 1998, they released Small Soldiers, Hot wheels, and Godzilla. In 1999, Thermos produced three more: Superman, Hot Wheels "Twin Mill" and a Barbie lunchbox. Perhaps a new wave of lunch boxes mania is being born with the millennium.

http://www.lunchboxpad.com/home/information/newsbox/articles/0055.shtml

The Historic HOLLYWOOD Sign

The Hollywood Sign is a famous landmark in the Hollywood Hills area of Los Angeles, California, spelling out the name of the area in 50 feet (15 m)[1] high white letters. It was created as an advertisement in 1923, but garnered increasing recognition after its initial purpose had been fulfilled.[2] The sign was a frequent target of pranks and vandalism, but has undergone restoration including a state of the art security system to deter vandalism.

The Hollywood sign is protected and promoted by the Hollywood Sign Trust, a non-profit organization whose purpose is to physically maintain, repair and secure the Hollywood sign; to educate the world about its historical and cultural importance; and to raise the funds necessary to accomplish these projects.

From the ground, the contours of the hills give the sign its well-known "wavy" appearance. When observed at a comparable altitude, the letters appear straight-across.
The sign makes frequent appearances in popular culture, particularly in establishing shots for films and television programs set in or around Hollywood. Signs of similar style, but spelling different words, are frequently seen as parodies.

The sign originally read "HOLLYWOODLAND", and its purpose was to advertise a new housing development in the hills above the Hollywood district of Los Angeles. H.J. Whitley had already used a sign to advertise his development Whitley Heights, which was located between Highland Avenue and Vine Avenue. He suggested to his friend Harry Chandler, the owner of the Los Angeles Times, that the land syndicate he was involved in make a similar sign to advertise their land. Real estate developers Woodruff and Shoults called their development "Hollywoodland" and advertised it as a "superb environment without excessive cost on the Hollywood side of the hills."

They contracted the Crescent Sign Company to erect thirteen letters on the hillside, each facing south. The sign company owner, Thomas Fisk Goff (1890–1984) designed the sign. Each letter of the sign was 30 ft (9 m) wide and 50 ft (15 m) high, and was studded with some 4000 light bulbs. The sign was officially dedicated on July 13, 1923. It was not intended to be permanent. Some sources say its expected life was to be about a year and a half but after the rise of the American cinema in Los Angeles, it became an internationally recognized symbol, and was left there.

It became so associated with Hollywood that in September 1932, actress Peg Entwistle committed suicide by jumping to her death from the letter "H", as she saw the sign as a symbol of the industry that had rejected her.

Unfortunately, there is no easy way to reach the Sign itself, which is located atop an undeveloped hillside, far from roads. And if you did manage to reach the area, you would discover that the Sign has been fenced in to keep out the curious, and that a new high-tech alarm system has recently been installed. I recommend that you settle for just looking at the Sign from a safe distance.

The best way to see the Hollywood Sign is to drive up Beachwood Drive (north of Hollywood Boulevard). The Sign is clearly visible most the way up Beachwood, although the hills begin to obscure the view of the Sign near the top of the drive.
If you don't want to drive up Beachwood, here are a few of the other obvious places where you can easily spot the Hollywood Sign on a clear day:

The Beverly Center Mall: the Sign can be seen when riding the exterior escalator tubes on the mall's east side, or from the outdoor food court patio on the mall's top floor. The Hollywood (101) Freeway: drivers on the northbound freeway get a brief glimpse of the Sign in between the Santa Monica Boulevard exit and the Sunset Boulevard exit.

The Hollywood Bowl: the sign can be seen behind the bowl - and a little to the left - but only from the upper bleachers. The gate at the Hollywood Memorial Cemetery (looking north), next door to Paramount Studios.

The top of the hill at Barnsdall Art Park, on east Hollywood Boulevard: look to the east of the Observatory. The Griffith Park Observatory: from its parking lot, look northwest, andLake Hollywood: the entrance is located on Weidlake Drive.

Getting there: The Hollywood Sign is located atop Mount Lee, in the Hollywood Hills, northeast of downtown Hollywood. For the best view, take Beachwood Drive north up into the hills. / To reach Beachwood Drive from Hollywood & Vine, take Hollywood Boulevard east (a quarter mile), to Gower Street. Turn left (north) up Gower (three blocks, under the freeway) to Franklin Avenue. Turn right (east) on Franklin, then immediately turn left (north) up Beachwood Drive, into the hills. It's a long, twisting drive. To reach Beachwood Drive from the Hollywood (101) Freeway, take the Gower Street exit, then turn right (north) up Beachwood Drive.

http://www.seeing-stars.com/Landmarks/HollywoodSign.shtml

Marijuana May Shrink Parts Of The Brain

MONDAY, June 2 (HealthDay News) -- People who use marijuana for a long time can develop abnormalities in their brains, Australian researchers report.

Although growing literature suggests that long-term marijuana use is associated with a wide range of adverse health consequences, many people believe it is relatively harmless and should be legalized, the researchers noted.

"However, this study shows long-term, heavy cannabis use causes significant brain injury, memory loss, difficulties learning new information, and psychotic symptoms, such as delusions of persecution [paranoia], delusions of mind-reading, and bizarre social behaviors in even non-vulnerable users," said lead researcher Murat Yucel, from the ORYGEN Research Centre and the Neuropsychiatry Centre at the University of Melbourne.

This new evidence plays an important role in further understanding the effects of marijuana and its impact on brain functioning, Yucel said. "The study is the first to show that long-term cannabis use can adversely affect all users, not just those in the high-risk categories such as the young, or those susceptible to mental illness, as previously thought," he said.

The report was published in the June issue of the Archives of General Psychiatry.

In the study, Yucel's team did high-resolution MRIs on 15 men who smoked more than five joints a day for more than 10 years. They compared those with scans of 16 men who did not use marijuana.

In addition, all the men took verbal memory tests and were examined for symptoms of psychiatric disorders.

"The more marijuana used, the more these individuals were likely to show reduced brain volumes in the hippocampus and amygdala, as well as being more likely to develop symptoms of psychotic disorders and to have significant memory impairment," Yucel said.

In fact, the hippocampus of marijuana users was 12 percent smaller, and the amygdala was 7.1 percent smaller than among nonusers. In addition, men who used marijuana also had symptoms of psychiatric disorders, Yucel's group found.

The hippocampus is associated with the regulation of emotion and memory, while the amygdala controls fear and aggression.

"There is ongoing controversy concerning the long-term effects of cannabis on the brain," Yucel said. "These findings challenge the widespread perception of cannabis as having limited or no harmful effects on brain and behavior. Although modest use may not lead to significant neurotoxic effects, these results suggest that heavy daily use might indeed be toxic to human brain tissue."

One expert agrees that heavy marijuana use can have negative effects on the brain.

"These findings are not surprising," said Dr. Adam Bisaga, an assistant professor of psychiatry at Columbia University and an addiction psychiatrist at New York State Psychiatric Institute. "Chronic use of large amounts of any substance that is affecting neural transmission will most likely invoke adaptive changes and lead to the reorganization of neural networks, and possibly affect brain structures."

Heavy users of marijuana probably represent only a very small proportion of users, Bisaga said.

"It is not clear if any clinically significant changes can be seen in recreational, infrequent marijuana users, who were not studied here. These findings suggest that public health education, as well as screening, early recognition, and treatment of cannabis dependence, may prevent the progression of the disease and the loss of brain function and related psychiatric complications," Bisaga said.

http://health.msn.com/health-topics/articlepage.aspx?cp-documentid=100204691>=31036

The Real Pirates Of The Caribbean

A piracy is offence against the universal law of society. A pirate is a seaman, robber who attacks, seizes or destroys any ship at high seas and sometimes even harbors at the shore. Besides that, they were involved in many other illegal activates like smuggling and slave trades. The pirates are doing that for personal interest, without any legal rights. And as those attacks were unauthorized acts, they were treated like criminals in all countries. In periods when those sea-robbers were most influential, piracy was punished with death almost everywhere. Legality of their actions is also the main distinction between them and the privateers or buccaneers for whom we can also say that were some kind of pirates, but not treated like criminals.

No matter what type of pirates they were, the piracy was in their blood. They were not doing it just for the money, but because of their spirit, hunger for adventures, danger s and fame! The life on the open sea has never been easy. A pirate ship was no place for the weak ones, but being a pirate gave them a total freedom to do what they pleased, whatever they want and whenever they want.

The pirates have existed and terrorized from the very earliest days of history and they are still active. Some regions like the islands of the Indian Ocean, west coasts of Africa and especially the Caribbean, were being their “hunting grounds” for centuries.

The pirates were also truly woman lovers. Famous Blackbeard had 14 wives! They extremely liked celebrations and when not engaged in robbing, pirates heavily drank rum and liquors while singing their old songs.

A fictional versions of pirates are shown today in many novels and movies. They are romanticized, sometimes shown in a really glamorous way. However, in most cases, they were not like that. Actually, a pirate's life was anything but nice and happy. In fact, it was indeed cruel, violent and generally very short. Their career did not last long, even for the most successful ones. They had usually sailed for 2 or 3 years before they got caught or died in a battle.

Nevertheless their short period of activity, despite they were treated like outlaws and feared throughout the seas, the pirates were enormously famous, and some of their names still live today.

BLACKBEARD

Even though he was not the most successful, the feared and hated sea-robber, legendary Blackbeard is probably the most famous pirate of the Caribbean. As a notorious figure and a villain, he has been the main subject of many stories, books and movies in modern fiction.

In appearance, he was most notable and terrifying because of the long black beard which covered almost his whole face. For amusement, he used to separate it into the tails, each one tied with a differently colored ribbon. Speaking of his image, Teach was always wearing a sling with three pairs of pistols strung across his breast in addition of cutlass and few knives in his belt. An opposing crew often surrendered only by a sight of this seafaring pirate, although some rumors goes that he was very generous with the people who cooperated with him.

Intelligent and astute for a pirate, he was well educated and he could read and write. He was also famous for his weakness for women. It is said that he had around 14 wives and that only his last marriage to 14-years-old Mary Ormond was legitimate.

His real name is not certain. Most likely it was Edward Drummond, but he always introduced himself as Edward Teach . However, he was the best known as Blackbeard

It is believed that he was born in Bristol around 1680. During his teen years, Blackbeard left England and took a passage to the Caribbean . He served in Jamaica as a privateer during the War of Spanish Succession. After the war, he moved to New Providence in Bahamas . There he worked as an ordinary crewman on the sloop commanded by the pirate and the ex-privateer, Captain Benjamin Hornigold.

By learning the trade of piracy quickly, Blackbeard was promoted and awarded with his own vessel and a small crew from his tutor. Soon, as he was sailing alongside captain Hornigold and plundered many ships, Teach gained bloodthirsty reputation. The "Concorde" was the last big capture of this duo. Nonetheless, it was the powerful 300-ton frigate armed with 26 guns. However, Hornigold decided to retire from a piracy and gave to Blackbeard the "Concorde". Horngold accepted the offer of general amnesty for pirates in the Caribbean Sea from Woodes Rogers, the governor of Bahamas . Teach upgraded the "Concorde" with 40 guns and renamed it to "Queen Anne's Revenge" .

He continued to capture vessels in the Caribbean . Most epic victory was certainly the one in the sea-battle against the powerful warship, HMS " Scarborough ", which brought even bigger reputation to the pirate captain. In January 1718, Teach sailed for Bathe Towne in North Carolina and found a new base in Ocracoke Islands . He was spending days robbing the passing ships. The nearby town's market was a perfect place for selling captured goods. Even the local Governor Eden was bribed so Blackbeard wasn't prosecuted for any of his crimes.

When the pirates sailed to Florida , Teach's crew encountered the sloop "Revenge", commanded by another famous pirate, Stede Bonnet. The two captains became friends and they agreed to sail together as partners. However, soon after agreement, Blackbeard realized that Bonnet was a poor leader and an uncompetitive pirate. Therefore, Teach convinced him to leave captain's place to his man. Bonnet was boarded on the "Queen Anne's Revenge" as a "guest".

In that period, Blackbeard captured several more prize ships, and the sloop "Adventure" was added to his fleet. When the pirates left the Caribbean , the fleet counted four ships and over 300 pirates . In May 1718, Teach anchored near the harbor of Charles Town (now Charleston ), South Carolina where he seized 8 vessels with great valuables and some very important people. However, his pirates were deceased and in a need of medicines rather then money. So Blackbeard ransomed many prominent citizens, who were enslaved, for the medical supplies.

Unfortunately, later that month, when the pirates sailed to North Carolina , the "Queen Anne's Revenge" was lost as she ran aground in shallow waters at Beaufort Inlet. In that period, Teach planned to take a pardon like Hornigold. However, before that, he had committed a greedy treason. Intension was to get rid of Stede Bonnet. Blackbeard persuaded him to receive a pardon as well. When he left for Bathe Towne, Teach marooned around 30 pirates on island, stole all valuables and fled with the "Adventure". Later, Stede Bonnet rescued the marooned pirates, and in return they agreed to obey his commands. Once again he took control of the "Revenge", which was left to him, as Blackbead promised if Bonnet would accept amnesty.

Meanwhile Teach returned to Bathe Towne, sold the entire booty, bought a house and was granted a pardon from his "old friend", Governor Eden. Local people taught his pirate's days were finished.

Anyway, Blackbeard couldn't settle with an ordinary life. He was tired of pretending to be a prominent citizen. So after a few months, bloody pirate returned to his old trade and continued to plunder ships near his base. Despite his activities were well covered, some local ship owners feared of Blackbeard and possible gathering of pirates. Doubts were especially increased when another famous pirate, Charles Vane visited Ocracoke Island to salute his old friend. Soon, complains reached nearby colony of Virginia .

The local governor, Alexander Spotswood had been frustrated by the pirates for a long time, so he dispatched military to get rid of Blackbeard. The two naval vessels, HMS " Pearl " and HMS "Lyme", were selected for that particular task, but waters around Teach's base were too shallow for those ships. Spotswood then offered money from his own pocket to hire two sloops, "Ranger" and "Jane". Lieutenant Robert Maynard was in command of these two sloops filled with Royal Naval crew.

Maynard attacked Blackbeard at the dawn of 22nd November 1718. In the one epic sea-battle, Captain Blackbead was finally killed and few surviving pirates from his crew were sentenced and hanged afterwards.

STEDE BONNET

Stede Bonnet was an ex-army major and the Barbados plantation owner. Recognized as a "pirate gentleman" because of his cultured background, Bonnet was one of the most interesting and unique pirates in the Caribbean history. Although one of the least successful, he became very famous for some of his not-so-pirate actions.

Bonnet lived with his wife on a large estate near Bridgetown , Barbados after his retirement from the army. His profitable sugar plantation brought him wealth, a nice and a peaceful lifestyle. It was 1717 when this middle-aged gentleman suddenly turned to the piracy without any particular reason. The Rumor goes that Bonnet had much brawling with his wife, or that he was bored with ordinary life.

He had been at the sea very little and knew nothing about pirates' way of life. Therefore, unlike any other pirate, Stede Bonnet actually purchased his ship! It was the sloop "Revenge" with 10 cannons. He also hired around 70 good seamen from the local towns and began his "adventure" throughout the Caribbean Sea . Strategy of paying them well kept him from being deposed because he was really incompetent as a sailor and inexperienced leader. However, Bonnet was able to somehow capture and plunder a few smaller vessels in the coasts of Virginia and Carolinas , mostly because of his skillful crew.

In Florida he encountered a fearsome pirate , Blackbeard and his ship, the "Queen's Anne Revenge". Infamous Edward Teach visited the "Revenge" and soon realized that Stede Bonnet was a pleasant pirate with good manners. They became companions and set sail together. Soon after that, Teach convinced Bonnet to leave the command of the ship because of his uselessness. Bonnet barely agreed and became a "guest" on the "Queen's Anne Revenge". One of Blackbeard's lieutenants took control of the "Revenge" and the crew accepted him.

After the famous siege of Charles Town in South Carolina which he witnessed as a spectator, Bonnet took advice from Teach and left immediately for Bathe Town , North Carolina to receive amnesty from the "pirate-friendly" governor Eden. Bonnet decided it would be better for him to become a privateer in the war against Spain , especially because he would be the captain once again.

However, Bonnet was tricked . Blackbeard took all Bonnet's valuables and only left him the "Revenge" and 25 pirates on a lone island. Bonnet once again took control of the "Revenge". He set off towards the Virgin Island in the war for England and France . Newly-promoter privateer also vowed the revenge on Blackbeard although he was unable to even pursue him.

Generally, the most Caribbean pirates who took pardon didn't settle with legal jobs and returned to the sea-robbing. Same goes for Bonnet. Not long had passed before he renamed his ship to "Royal James" and returned to the piracy . Bonnet now cruised with much more experience and easily plundered some ships on the Virginia coast. While he was undoing his repairs in the small port of North Carolina, he plundered a local ship, and the news reached the authorities in Charles Town. Other pirates besides him, like Charles Vane, caused a lot of trouble in that region of the Caribbean . So, the local authorities decided to hire a local ship owner, William Rhett , to hunt the pirates. He had two sloops: the "Henry" with 70 men, led by Captain Masters and the "Sea Nymph" with 60 men, led by Captain Hall.

In October 1718, hunters found a pirate liar in Cape Fear Riverand and attacked Bonnet's flagship . The battle had lasted 5 hours when Bonnet was forced to surrender. Rhett was very surprised when he found out that Bonnet was on the ship because he was chasing Charles Vane. The pirates were taken to Charles Town, where townsfolk remembered Bonnet was a part of Blackbeard's crew during the infamous siege.

While imprisoned in a private house before a trial, Bonnet sent a letter to the governor, in which he asked to be forgiven. He also tried to escape but failed. Stede Bonnet was put on sentenced and hanged in November 1718 for piracy alongside 30pirates.

CALICO RACKHAM JACK

Calico Rackham Jack had mediocre accomplishments as a pirate. His fame comes from the fact that two most famous woman pirates, Anne Bonny and Mary Read sailed under his flag.

Calico Jack got nickname Calico, because he was always wearing lousy striped calico pants. (Calico is clothing material that was made in India in 18 th century. It was cheap and had "unfinished" look.)

Calico Jack Rackham never had enough manpower to attack heavily protected treasure ships. He preferred to use a small sloop and attack fishing vessels and local merchants.

In 1718, Jack Rackham was quartermaster on Charles Vane's ship. On November 23 rd, they encountered a French man-of-war. After realizing that it was not a commercial ship as they first though, Vane decided not to try to board the warship. His crew disagreed and on the following day Calico Rackham Jack was elected as a new captain. Charles Vane and the part of crew that supported him were left in a small sloop.

With his new ship, Calico Rackham Jack captured several small vessels. His share of plundered gold was not big, but he decided to retire for a time being. In 1719, he returned to the New Providence and received a King's Pardon from governor Woodes Rogers.

In the New Providence, Rackham met and fell in love with Anne Bonny. Her husband, James Bonny, in several occasions even threatened Calico. However, at the end Anne decided to leave her husband and ran away with Rackham.

Jack's money was running out, so in August 1719, he stole sloop named the William and returned to piracy. He cruised between Bermuda and Hispaniola and then sailed to Cuba. Again, he only attacked smaller vessels and mostly local craft.

During one occasion, Rackham captured en English ship, and forced several captured sailors into service. One of them was Mary Read.

Calico Jack Rackham and the most of his crew were captured in October 1720, near western coast of the Jamaica. Ship was anchored and crew unprepared, because the day before, they captured Spanish commercial ship and were celebrating all night. According to testimonies, only Mary and Anne resisted. Calico was apparently too drunk to command and even defend himself.

Captain Calico Jack Rackham would certainly be forgotten quickly, if during his trial for piracy, background of two woman pirates were not revealed. Anne and Mary were more than just woman pirates. They broke society's strict rules and escaped traditional restrictions. However, the names of Calico Jack Rackham, Anne Bonny and Mary Read, spread quickly throughout Europe and the America. They became legends, although they were just a minor nuisance.

Calico Jack and his crew were found guilty, for crime of piracy. Anne and Mary were reprieved, when it was discovered that they were both pregnant. With the rest of his crew, Jack was hanged.

HENRY MORGAN

Despite some of his actions were brutal and illegitimate, Henry Morgan was not a pirate. The Welshman was a magnificent buccaneer , certainly the most famous one . Described as a remarkable leader and a fearsome conqueror, he had a couple of legendary battles and unique tactics which brought him fame and wealth. Because of all his deeds, Morgan was a true hero of the Caribbean and the English nation.

Henry Morgan was born around 1635 in Llanrhymny, Wells. Already as a youngster, Henry was ambitious and very lively person who could not settle with a monotonous life in a quiet place. He decided to move on because he had a dream to be a sailor. Although Morgan wanted to gain wealth and fame as soon as possible, a pirate way of life was not in his interest. Therefore, he joined the England 's naval army to serve as a buccaneer .

It is uncertain how Morgan arrived in Jamaica, but it happened in the in 1655, when island was occupied by the buccaneers. He joined the England forces which attacked and robbed Spanish colonies in the Caribbean . There he built his buccaneer career first as a common solider and soon as a respected sailor. By joining a famous captain, Christopher Myngs and his fleet on some of his expeditions, Morgan gained much more naval experience.

Finally, in 1662, he became a captain of a small privateering vessel. His first successful raid was in 1664, when a group of buccaneer captains harassed together. They plundered many ships and colonies on the coast of Yutacan Peninsula and the rich town Granada in Central America.

All those attacks brought him a great financial income and also an excellent reputation . He bought a plantation on Jamaica and married his cousin , Mary Elizabeth. She was the daughter of Morgan's uncle, Colonel Edward Morgan, the governor of Jamaica. Edward Morgan died soon after, in attack on the Dutch colony. The new governor of Jamaica was Sir Tomas Modyford , who became a very good friend to Henry Morgan . Because of that friendship and his constant success, Morgan was promoted to a vice-admiral of the Jamaican fleet.

Meanwhile, the Spanish activity increased in Cuba, so Mayford choose Morgan to lead the Jamaican fleet. In January 1668, more then 10 ships and over 500 soldiers sailed to Cuba. Once again Morgan turned nightmarish for Spain. The City of Peurto Principe was easily conquered without much loss. Problem was that this raid brought to his army only 50,000 pieces of eight. Many disappointed soldiers left Morgan.

Fearless Henry planned another attack right away despite his army was almost halved. Target was a fortified and a well-guarded town, Puerto Bello. The tactic that Morgan was using during this conflict was crucial . He anchored his ships far from the city and used the canoes to approach the city quietly at the night. The attack was quick, the guards were unaware and two of the three main forts were easily conquered. However, the third one was almost impossible to occupy. Then Morgan came up with a brilliant idea to use the imprisoned monks and nuns as a human shield. With that strategy they succeed to conquer the last obstacle. The Buccaneers captured the town and the governor of Panama was forced to pay a lot for the slaves. 250,000 pieces of eight were taken from that impressive raid.

Next Morgan's terror took place in Venezuela in 1669. With 8 ships and 650 crewmen he conquered the city of Marcaibo. His buccaneers tortured many Venezuelan citizens almost like the cruelest pirates, in order to discover all hidden booty .

At that time, Morgan was the indisputable king of all buccaneers . He had wealth, the most powerful army in the Caribbean , and what is most important, a constant success. In most fights, Morgan performed such achievements that even Spaniards praised his bravery and leadership.

With the powerful force of 1200 buccaneers and 30 ships, his last great attack began in 1670. It was the greatest challenge and his main goal - Panama. First he took fort, San Lorenzo, which allowed his troops to reach Panama through the jungle. However, it turnout that trip was much more exhausting than Morgan expected. He lost many people because of hunger and sickness. However, buccaneers' charismatic captain boosted everyone's moral and they finally reached their goal. An enormous number of Spaniards was gathered in order to defend the rich city, but they could to nothing against the supreme army of buccaneers. The city was taken in the great fight and then entirely plundered and demolished. That happened to be the last Morgan's raid .

Actually, he did not know that he had committed act of piracy . England and Spain had been at peace when last attack occurred, so after his return to Jamaica, Morgan was promptly arrested by the new governor and shipped to England for a trial. However, that trail never happened. Morgan was a powerful and influential man with many great deeds for England behind him. Although a prisoner of state, he has never been punished. Instead, he was honored by the King and promoted to the deputy governor of Jamaica. In the period between 1674 and 1682, he was still military active in defense of the island from the pirates.

Morgan spent rest of his life peacefully with his wife, on a big plantation. When he died in 1688 , almost no buccaneers in the Caribbean were active.

WILLIAM KIDD

This famous Scottish pirate had a very unlucky career. From a great privateer he became an infamous pirate. Many historians today do not even consider Captain William Kidd a pirate. The people talk more about his fate, and less about his deeds. For his one and only act of piracy he paid with his very own life. However, beginning of his career looked very promising.

Kidd was born around 1645 in Greenock, Scotland. He loved the sea and sailing. Since the childhood, his dream had been to become a seaman, or even more, a great privateer and a pirate hunter. Later on, he left his homeland for New York where his career got underway. The success came almost instantly and Kidd's reputation as a privateer was growing rapidly. His prestige increased after many successful raids and a rank of a captain entitled him afterwards. He married Sarah Bradley Cox, a rich 20-years-old two-times widow. They had two kids. With successful career, wealth and family, his dreams were becoming reality.

England heard of his success, and in 1695, the king called him to serve there. Kidd agreed, hoping to win more challenging contracts. Once in England, he met many prominent citizens, including the new governor of New York and Massachusetts, Sir George Bellomont. He had a proposal for Kidd, which later turned fatal. He was put in the command of the "Adventure", a specially designed galley-warship with 30 cannons and 100 skillful crewmembers. His backers counted a lot of influential people in England. Some rumor goes that the king himself included that group. His main task was to hunt the pirates of the Red Sea. Kidd acquired two commissions: one gave him the authority to capture the French ships, and the other made him the government's pirate hunter.

The whole plan also involved some semi-legal actions which were supposed to bring a big profit. On those pirate-like operations, the backers would turn a blind eye. Kidd sailed out of the Chatham dockyard, and the troubles started soon after. Almost all his best crewmen left him for two Royal Navy ships, which were in a need of sailors. So, Kidd was forced to recruit the new ones in New York. Unfortunately, new crewmembers were mostly smugglers and former pirates, and they intended to attack all ships with no exception. As expected, Kidd refused that, so the arguing between him and newly-promoted crew began immediately.

The next destination was Madagascar. Meanwhile, no acceptable victims were found. There were a few attacks on French ships, but they failed. His crew was frustrated, especially when Kidd fled from some potential victims who seemed well-armed. Actually, they had some small captures, but they used earned money to repair the ship in the Laccadive Islands. Some of the disappointed crew left him there. The others pressured their captain even more because of his evasiveness. In one of many conflicts, enraged Kidd killed his gunner William Moore. After that incident, a potential mutiny was quelled. However, almost two years after leaving London, Kidd couldn't handle the pressure any more, so he committed his first and last act of piracy.

It was January 1698, when Kidd captured Quedah Merchant, the treasure ship that belonged to the British East India Company. He won battle easily and it was a truly great catch. That enormous vessel became his new flagship called the "Adventure Prize" and he finally abandoned the damaged "Adventure". However, Kidd became a wanted man as the revolted East India Company forced the government to brand him as a pirate. The backers couldn't support him anymore and any pardon was unacceptable. He had no other choice but to try to make some kind of a deal through the Governor Bellamont. Unfortunately, neither he, nor anybody else could do anything for Kidd anymore.

In April 1700, Kidd sailed to New York hoping to hide behind some powerful friends of his. However, he was arrested and shipped back to the England. William Kidd was trialed in May 1701 and sentenced to death for piracy and killing his gunner. This unlucky man had even the disastrous death. On his execution, the hanging rope had broken, before he was hanged properly in the second try. His body was disposed in a cage on Thames River as a warning to any potential pirate.

Today, Captain Kidd is one of the most familiar pirates. The main reason for that is the famous treasure. It is believed that he buried somewhere on Long Island just before he was captured and executed. Among many other stories and novels, Louis Stevenson's "Treasure Island" brought the most attention to this legend. However, if all those stories are true, these treasures are all there yet.

MARY READ

Mary Read was born in Devon County, England, in the late 17th century. She had a harsh childhood. Her father died before she was born and her half-brother Mark passed away soon afterward. Mary's paternal grandmother supported Mary and her mother, only because she thought that her grandson Mark was still alive. To keep death of Mary's brother as secret, from his grandmother, Mary was raised as a boy, pretending to be her older brother.

When Mary Read was about thirteen years old, her grandmother died. Mary still dressed as boy and with boyish habits, had to find a job. She became a footboy to wealthy French woman, who lived in London . Unsatisfied with her current position, she escaped and boarded a man-o-war. Few years have passed and she became bored again. This time she joined army , where she met her future husband. After confessing love and true gender to him, they left army, married and opened an Inn called Three Horseshoes near Castle Breda.

Mary Read was always surrounded by death. After just few months of marriage, her husband got sick and died. Desperate, she just wanted to escape from everything and joined the army again. This time she was boarded a Dutch ship that sailed to the Caribbean . Almost at the reach of its destination, Mary's ship was attacked and captured by the pirate, Calico Rackham Jack who took all English captured sailors as part of his crew. Unwillingly she became a pirate. However, soon after, she started to like pirate way of life . When she had a chance to leave Rackham's ship, Mary decided to stay.

On Rackham's ship, she met Anne Bonny. Being only women on ship and sharing a lot in common, they quickly became good friends. Some people believe that Mary Read was in romantic relationship with Anne Bonny, Rackham or even one of the crewmembers. However, we cannot testify to any of that.

Mary's pirate carrier ended, on October 1720. She was captured, by Captain Barnet in desperate battle. In Port Royal, they stood trial. Rackam and his crew were found guilty of piracy, but Mary and Anne were spared because they claimed to be with child .

Mary Read died with her unborn child in prison from fever . She was buried at St. Catherine's parish in Jamaica .

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